Vogu Grammatical Tables

Contents

• Crasis
• Elision
• Accent
• Noun Complements
• Fleeting Vowel
• Postpositions
• Dependent Adjectives
• Particles
• Conjunctions
• Table of Correspondences

Crasis

Certain sound changes occur when two consonants come together in the process of word formation or grammatical affixation. These changes are based on the consonant classes of the two consonants.

Class I, Labial (partial: b, p, f, v) before
   Class II, Sibilant (z, Q, Z, j, s, S, L, c, M)       =  f
   Class III, Dental (t, D, d)                          =  v
   Class V, Liquids (n, m, N, l, r)                     =  no change
  
Class II, Sibilant
   Class IIa, Sibilant (s, S, L, c, M) before
     Class III, Dental (t, D, d)                        =  s
     Class V, Liquid (n, m, N, l, r)                    =  s
     The letter h                                       =  S and drop h
     Letters g, R, k, C                                 =  S but keep 2nd
   Class IIb, Sibilant (z, Q, Z) before                                                          
     Class III, Dental (t, D, d)                        =  Q
     Class V, Liquid (n, m, N, l, r)                    =  z
     The letter h                                       =  Z and drop h
     Letters g, R, G, k, l                              =  Z but keep 2nd
   Class IIb, Letter j before
     Class III, Dental (t, D, d)                        =  no change
     Class V, Liquid (n, m, N, l, r)                    =  no change
     The letter h                                       =  j and drop h
     Letters g, R, G, k, C                              =  no change

Class III, Dental (t, D, d) before  
   Class II, Sibilant (z, Q, Z, j, s, S, L, c, M)       =  drop dental
   The letter h                                         =  D and drop h
   Letters g, R, G, k, C                                =  D but keep 2nd

Class IV, Velar (g, R, G, h, k, C) before
   Class II, Sibilant (z, Q, Z, j, s, S, L, c, M)       =  k
   Class III, Dental (t, D, d)                          =  C
   Class V, Liquid (partial: n, m, N)                   =  h

1. When consonants of the same class come together, the first is dropped. In the case of the liquids, this applies only to n, m, N.
2. w never changes in any combination.
3. Many loanwords have not undergone crasis in word formation; hence, they may appear irregular.
4. Weak compounds (i.e, those whose elements are easily recognizable) or stressed syllables in compounds often do not undergo crasis in word formation.
5. The loss of the initial fleeting vowel does not trigger crasis in the consonants brought together.

Elision

Vogu will not permit two vowels in a row, and the rules of vowel elision are used to resolve conflicts when a CV- prefix or -VC suffix is added to a VC or CV root, respectively. For the most part, the stronger vowel will predominate, but there are exceptions.

1. Relative vowel strengths:
   1. Predominating: o, i, u
   2. Strong: a, yo, yu
   3. Weak: e, ya, U, ye, yI
2. Always predominate:
   1. The vowel closest to the stem, in the case of vowels of equal strength.
   2. The noun gender prefixes a-, po-, mi-
   3. The postpositions -a, -o, -i, -u
   4. The verb prefixes o-, ha-, ho-, hi-, u-

Accent

The list below is progressive: each rule supercedes the previous. In the case of equal precedence, accent generally falls on the last element in the word eligible to receive the accent.

1. Unaffixed words (noun subjects, particles, etc.)
   1. Words of 2 syllables: accent on the first or strongest vowel.
   2. Words of 3 or more syllables: accent on second or strongest vowel, ignoring the first vowel.
   3. Pronouns: accent on first syllable of ani, IMu, INu.
   4. Names: accent on the first syllable.
   5. Compounds: irregular, usually follows the accent pattern of the first element of the compound unless the compound is highly eroded.
   6. Compounds (2): accent on the last syllable of words formed with the radical extensions -na, -etl.
2. Addition of affixes usually does not affect stress placement, except for
3. Accent on the noun complement, for adjectives.
4. Accent on the dependent adjectives -kal, -aM, , and on the first syllable of -banda.
5. Accent on verbal prefix closest to the stem, for verbs and participles. (EXCEPTION: when gerund o- is the only verbal affix, the accent of the verb does not change.)
6. Accent on the postpositions -a, -i, -o
7. Accent on the negative suffix -ak

Noun Complements

These are the characteristic initial letter(s) of Vogu words, grouped into their specific noun complement classes. The basic semantic content of each class is also given.

a-class (Neuter animates)

a-

po-class (Masculine animates, natural objects, powerful things)

po-, zm-, jl-, f-, fl-, vr-, tr-, dm-, N-, lw-, S-, M-, R-

mi-class (Feminine animates, plants, things that nurture or protect)

mi-, Q-, Z-, j-, bl-, pr-, vl-, dr-, mp-, r-, s-, g-, kv-, ks-

tha-class (Concrete nouns)

Da-, zl-, t- tl-, d-, dl-, yu-, U-, sw-, sr-, i-, G-, yI-, C-, u-

ka-class (Collective nouns)

ka-, z-, o-, b-, pl-, w-, fs-, v-, vg-, mz-, ml-, l-, sp-, yo-, hw-

na-class (Abstract nouns)

a-, p-, vp-, e-, tv-, dv-, ya-, ye-, L-, c-, hl-, h-, kw-, kr-

Fleeting Vowel

The addition of certain accented affixes causes the loss of the initial or final vowel of the stem, under certain conditions:

1. Initial vowels drop out if
   1. the stem is polysyllabic and begins CV.
   2. the initial vowel is e, I, U.
   3. the first consonant is not M, L, G, R
   4. if initial consonants to each side of the vowel are identical
      1. for verbs, first consonant drops out
      2. for adjectives, fleeting vowel does not occur.
2. Final vowels drop out if
   1. the word is polysyllabic, ending VC
   2. the last vowel is e, I, U
   3. the last two consonants are not identical.
   4. the penultimate consonant is not M, L, G, R, n, m, N, l, r, w
   5. the penultimate consonant is not b, p, t, d, Q, k, g following another consonant
3. Crasis does not occur between consonants brought together by the loss of the fleeting vowel.

Postpositions

-a

direct object

-ank

privative, ablative: 'without'

-apro

'opposite, facing'

-av

by means of: 'by, using'

'according to'

means of conveyance: 'in, on, by, via'

logical subject of infinitive constructions

time: at each occurence, 'every'

amount of difference: 'by'

-bINo

similarity; 'like, sort of'

'in relation to'

-bla

location: 'in front of'

'in the presence of'

time: 'before'

-Cem

comparison: 'as...as, than, of'

-do

motion: 'as far as, up to'

time: 'by'

-duku

interest: 'about, concerning'

fetching, getting: 'for'

approval: 'for, in favor of, pro'

naduku, bUn: 'because of, due to'

-eQm

location: 'at, in, inside'

'in the midst of'

time: 'in, within, at, on'

'in the time or reign of'

times per period: 'per'

-eta

accompanying: 'with'

alongside: 'at, by, beside'

motion: 'along'

'in relation to, regarding'

'in comparison or contrast to'

'up to (on one's body)'

'on (one's body)'

time: simultaneity, 'while'

-etl

permanent agent: 'as'

distribution of quantity throughout a group: 'per'

exchange or replacment (eg. cost): 'for'

multiplicity of events: 'X times'

dimension of a quantity: 'in'

descriptive: 'in the capacity of'

evaluative: 'as, to be (a)'

-flaka

location: 'above, beyond'

motion: 'over, through (an opening)'

-hu

motion: 'past'

-i

indirect object: 'to'

-ija

'contrary to, as opposed to'

-ispo

motion: 'from under'

-iS

motion: 'to a thing, to a place'

time: 'until'

-iza

motion:'from behind'

-If

genitive: 'of, belonging to'

-Ikl

proximity: 'by, near, in the vicinity of'

'at one's house'

time: approximation, 'around, about'

-Ikm

origin: 'from'

composition: 'from, of'

part of a group: 'of'

motion from: 'from, out of, from within'

-Ilm

motion: 'into'

-IQu

motion: 'across, over'

-ki

remoteness: 'far from'

avoidance: 'away from'

time: 'from, since, after'

-kri

superposition: 'on'

motion onto: 'onto'

duration: 'while, for, during'

-mej

location: 'between, among'

-nu

'in addition to, besides'

-o

ergative object

-oN

'to a person'

'to one's house'

-opd

location: 'under, below'

motion: 'to under'

-po

location: superposition, 'against'

-prot

opposition: 'versus, against, con'

'away from'

-puke

location: 'outside of'

-QoS

'except for'

-rata

purpose, for the sake/use of: 'for'

'in view of, in light of'

natrata, bUn: 'in order that'

-tIC

motion: 'off of, down from'

-trenaS

opposition: 'against, anti'

'instead of'

'despite'

-Sa

location: 'behind'

motion: 'to behind, after (pursuit)'

time: 'after'

-u

number sign

-vokr

location: 'around, all over'

motion: 'through'

time: for the entire duration, 'throughout'

Compound postpositions

-av ahatrunetl 'on the part of'

oplIpakav -a 'in view of'

odUmQikri -bINo ' in agreement with'

odUmank -duku 'regardless of'

odUmbyokri -duku 'in regard to'

paDaprata -If 'for the sake of'

-eta ahatarCinatl 'with the aid/participation of'

-eta tliwaSatl 'with the exception of'

DanSav -If 'on behalf of'

napulpretl -Ikm 'as a result of'

nateZeQm -If 'in the course of, during the time that, for a period of'

nahyorata -If 'in honor of'

nolav -If 'by virtue of'

yetraZkri -eta 'on a par with'

hubenzov -If 'thanks to'

kaDpodeta -If 'next to'

Dependent Adjectives

Definitions are given for use as adjective and adverbially, when appropriate.

-ak

(adj) 'no'

(adv) 'not'

-alo

(adj) 'few, not many, not much'

(adv) 'more or less'

-alokta

'not many more, not much more, little more'

-am

'(one's) own'

-ambo

(adj) 'sufficient, enough'

(adv) 'rather, somewhat'

-aM

(adj) 'many, much'

(adv) 'very'

-arL

superlative

-ate

interrogative: 'what kind of'

-atko

(adj) 'such a'

(adv) superlative: 'so, how'

-banda

(adj) 'every, each'

(adv) 'always, constantly'

(adv) 'ever' (eg. LathapuQbanda 'ever better')

-eSas

(adj) 'another'

(adv) 'on the other hand'

-etraZ

(adj) 'the other'

(adv) 'otherwise, or else'

-geza

(adj) 'any'

(adv) 'even'

-GiM

'this many, this much'

-iL

absolute superlative

-Ikta

(adj) 'mere, insignificant'

(adv) 'merely, just'

-IlSu

(adj) 'too many, too much, excess'

(adv) 'too (much)'

-Indad

'that'

-Inok

(adj) 'single, sole, only'

(adv) 'only, singly, alone'

-INu

pluralizer

-IRu

'this kind, such-and-such'

-kaben

interrogative: 'how many, how much'

-kal

(adj) 'all'

(adv) 'completely'

-nebu

'some sort of'

-nesko

'several, a few, some'

-noM

'this much'

-note

'this kind'

-obo

'both'

-ole

(adj) 'the (aforementioned)'; 'it'

(adv) 'thus'

-oteb

'this'

-oteb ge = 'the very'

-pan

'a certain'

-poka

(adj) 'almost enough'

(adv) 'almost'

-tak

(adj) 'sort of'

(adv) 'more or less'

-uQ

comparative

-uSe

(adj) 'also, besides, in addition'

(adv) 'also, even, else'

-UoQ

'the same, the very'

-vep

interrogative: 'what, which'

Particles

• Grammatical particles
  • byu willingness: 'would'
  • cyomo 'intend to'
  • dyu interrogative
  • hazu supposition: 'suppose that'
  • kdasi request: 'please'
  • ker desire: 'want/like to'
  • moce consideration: 'think of doing'
  • nocyo semblance: 'it appears as if'
  • Nyo 'be about to'
  • olZ obligation: 'should, must'
  • ya vocative: 'O'
• Locative particles
  • bdo 'underneath (something)'
  • begIn 'elsewhere'
  • Co 'near me (invisible)'
  • do there (in sight)'
  • doQ 'on a pile'
  • Dav 'outside'
  • Do 'alongside me'
  • fa 'behind me'
  • gu 'at the end/limit of something'
  • ho 'in the back'
  • ke 'next to me'
  • kre 'on a seat or platform'
  • kve 'on a raised thing'
  • la 'below, under, down there'
  • lo 'inside a structure'
  • lu 'above, up there'
  • ma 'here'
  • mbele 'far away'
  • mu 'in front'
  • Ma 'suspended (from something)'
  • ol 'on the floor'
  • sak 'in a hole, cave, pocket, bag'
  • tam 'there (invisible)'
  • up ' on top of (something)'
  • va 'in the middle'
  • ve 'within a container'
  • yad 'near me (in sight)'
• Temporal
  • aga 'a while ago'
  • ahyer 'yesterday'
  • bakIdo 'soon'
  • halafu 'afterwards, later'
  • ije 'now'
  • joju 'often'
  • jozi 'day before yesterday'
  • jujuzi 'the other day (indefinite)'
  • kabka 'long ago'
  • keSkutwa 'day after tomorrow'
  • kIlasIk 'daily'
  • kujo 'just now, only now'
  • kwanza 'firstly, at the start'
  • manya 'tomorrow'
  • mCana 'in the daytime'
  • mIlele 'forever'
  • mwiSo 'finally'
  • owi 'today'
  • peNe 'sometimes'
  • pole 'at that (very) moment'
  • sIkizi 'nowadays'
  • syeC 'now'
  • undukwa 'someday, in the future'
• Onomanopoetic
  • akat '(lightning) in a flash'
  • bUgul '(boiling water) angrily, irritably'
  • bwe (dog barking) annoyingly'
  • CUbwi '(splash) suddenly, surprisingly'
  • CUlo '(waves) peacefully'
  • daN '(bang) suddenly but intentionally'
  • degUrok '(stacking of dishes) finally'
  • doduQ '(baby's motion) gently, clumsily'
  • dolgok '(rocking) repeatedly, calmly'
  • duroN '(snoring) noisily, inappropriately'
  • hududu '(start of rain) inexorably, inevitably'
  • jujul '(flowing water) smoothly'
  • juruk '(water drops) persistently'
  • kukul '(sound sleep) deeply, fixedly'
  • mIgUn '(slippery rocks) untrustworthily'
  • muloN '(soft items) gently, kindly'
  • pIk '(forced laughter) falsely'
  • poljok '(jumping) suddenly, without planning'
  • polok '(blowing leaves) hesitantly'
• Interjections
  • a realization: 'ah'
  • aCa enlightenment: 'aha'
  • ada acceptance: 'OK'
  • agU sadness: 'alas'
  • awu pain: 'ouch'
  • budi aquiesence: 'by all means'
  • ewe commencement: 'now, then, well'
  • ha laughter: 'hah'
  • haha warning: 'no, you don't'
  • hUN joy: 'whoopee'
  • jal uncertainty: 'well'
  • jebl denial: 'by no means'
  • jUN incredulity: 'what'
  • ker approval:' bravo'
  • kUrUm agreement: 'sure, of course, OK'
  • torohyo contradiction: 'on the contrary'
  • tudu dismissal: 'shoo'
  • UN rudeness: 'get lost'
  • yegi surrender: OK, I give up'
  • yo greeting: 'hello'
  • yobo amazement: 'you don't say'
• Others
  • aju 'completely'
  • ama 'probably'
  • bure 'to no purpose, in vain'
  • dyemi 'perhaps, maybe'
  • gafula 'abruptly'
  • ge emphasis: 'indeed, voila'
  • jolo 'certainly'
  • kamwe 'not at all'
  • ker 'gladly'
  • kIdogo 'a bit, somewhat'
  • moSika 'probably, most likely'
  • ndi 'securely, carefully'
  • nomu 'excessively, too much'
  • Nyo 'barely, almost'
  • ohIr 'just, simply'
  • Quge 'hardly'
  • tasi 'again'
  • vIvyo 'also'
  • wa 'this very one, one's own'
  • yuZe 'already'

Conjunctions

• Connective Conjunctions

  ebIr / e

  'and (in general, or grouping)'

  myoso

  'and (simultaneously)'

  kaRi

  'and, next, then (succession of events)'

  Qebe / Qe

  'or'

  ina / na

  'but (contrastive)'

  dojo

  'and, but, whereas, while'

• Correlative Conjunctions

  es...go

  'if...then' (when the 'if' verb is in the concessive tense)

  'when...then' (when the 'if' verb is non-concessive)

  es natko...go nole

  'as...so'

  esduku...go

  'Inasmuch as...therefore'

  es...myoN

  'although...nevertheless'

  ebIr...ebIr

  'both...and'

  Qebe...Qebe

  'either...or'

  jiman...myoN

  'even though/even if...nevertheless'

  traZ...domyo

  'far from/instead of...rather'

• Subordinating Conjunctions

  nata, bUn

  'that' (direct object of the main verb)

  natrata, bUn

  'in order to, in order that, so that'

  natrenaS, bUn

  'despite the fact that'

  natetl, bUn

  'in accordance with the fact that'

  natbINo, bUn

  'as if, like'

  naduku, bUn

  'because of, since (as a consequence)'

  natija, bUn

  'although, contrary to the fact that'

  natnu, bUn

  'besides, in addition to the fact that'

  nateta, bUn

  'so long as, provided that'

  naQoS, bUn

  'unless, except that'

  natflaka, bUn

  'as a consequence of the fact that, as a result of'

  naDCem, bUn

  'than'

• Conjunctive Postpositions

  -ki

  'since' (time since an event, not 'whereas')

  -Sa

  'after'

  -bla

  'before'

  -iS

  'until'

  -eta

  'with, while'

  -kri

  'while, during'

  -ank

  'not, without'(normal way of negating a subordinate postpositional phrase; -ak is not used)

Table of Correspondences

Various adjectives and adverbs can be grouped into intersecting families depending on their meaning. The matrix which represents these intersecting meanings is called a table of correspondences.

             Interrogative Demonstrative Indefinite Relative  Indef.Relative
Adjectives:
  Identity   -vep         -oteb         apan       -gUd      -gUgeza
             which?        this          someone    who, that whoever
             -vepIf       -Indad        ageza      -gUdIf  
             whose?         that          anyone     whose
             avep         -ole          apangeza
             who?          the           whoever
             navep                      napan
             what?                       something
                                        napangeza
                                         whatever

  Quantity   -kaben       -noM          -GiM                 -gUGiM 
             how many/    this           a certain            as much as,
             much?         much           amount of           however much

  Quality    -ate         -note         -IRu                 -gURu
             what sort?   this sort      a certain            whatever sort
                                         kind of

Adverbs:
  Place      nsuvri       nasbri        nspakri    naSgUkri  naSgUgezakri
             where?       here           somewhere  where      wherever
             nfri         nabr          nseZkri    nSgi
             where?       here           anywhere   where
                          nasnri
                          there

  Source     nasveki      nsevki        nspanki    naSgUki   naSgUgezaki
             from where?  from here      from       from       from
                          naSki         somewhere  where      wherever
                          from there

 Destination nasviS       nasbiS        nspaniS    naSgUS    naSgUgeziS
             to where?    to here        to         to where   to wherever
                          nasniS        somewhere
                          to there

  Manner     navav        nobav         napnav     nagUdav   nagUgezav
             how?         natkov         somehow,   how        however
                          nolav          in a
                          thus, in       certain
                          this way       way

  Reason     navduku      notbuku       napnuku    nagUduku  nagUgezaduku   
             why?         nolduku        for some   for which for whatever
                          for this       reason     reason    reason
                          reason

  Time       kavkri       katbri        kapakri    kavgUkri  kavgUgezakri
             kvi          now            sometime   kagi      whenever
             when?        kvenkri       kvgeZkri   when
                          then          kvri
                                         then

© 1997, Terrence Donnelly